Improved irrigation systems will boost resilience, productivity and income of rural and smallholder farmers and will increase domestic food supply.

Efficient and modernized irrigation systems like drip irrigation and solar water pumps will decrease the burden of agriculture on limited water resources.

Irrigation systems will create employment opportunities both within agricultural production and industries with linkages, such as in transportation and hospitality.

Irrigation systems may benefit large-scale farms while excluding smallholder farmers who require productivity support the most, further deepening existing inequalities (16).

If irrigation systems are purely targeted towards title deed land (TDL), women farmers may be excluded from benefits, further deepening existing inequalities (31).

If not managed sustainably, increased uptake of irrigation systems may further deplete the already restricted water resources in Eswatini and reduce the availability of water for other sectors and human consumption (16). They may have adverse effects on downstream communities that depend on water from rivers, especially during the dry seasons (31).

The purchase, maintenance and upkeep of irrigation systems may be too costly for smallholder farmers, which may exclude them from the benefits and limit the expected impact.

Specifically, most of Eswatini's irrigation infrastructure is imported from South Africa. Domestic suppliers have limited capacity to deliver and operate on large scale and are dependent on imports for stock, which may hinder access of smallholder farmers' to the irrigation systems and hence limit the expected impact (19).

Insufficient high quality data may exist on what impact irrigation systems would have on the livelihoods of smallholder farmers and the environment in drought-prone areas.

If irrigation systems are not adequately maintained or droughts persist, their impact may not deliver the expected impact.

Sustainably increase agricultural productivity, reduce food insecurity and support farmer livelihoods.

Swaziland National Agricultural Investment Plan (SNAIP), 2015: The important role of irrigation and water infrastructure in closing the yield gaps is reflected in the planned investment of approximately USD 1.084 billion, representing 54% of planned agricultural investments over a 10 year period (18).

Investing in Economic Recovery, Prosperity and Sustainable Development: an Implementation Master Plan, 2021: The construction of dams, improved irrigation and access to water is identified as a key strategy for advancing agricultural development and achieving the SDGs (34).

The Strategy for Sustainable Development and Inclusive Growth (SSDIG), 2017: Enhancing water harvesting mechanisms and down-stream irrigation development and establishing research programme on irrigation system design highlighted as key strategies for agricultural development (32).

Ministry Of Agriculture Strategic Plan (2018-2023): The Ministry aims to support a variety of agricultural projects ranging from smallholder production to large scale horticulture projects through investments in irrigation infrastructure development (35).

The Eswatini Zero Hunger Strategic Review 2020: Improved irrigation infrastructure is a key aspect of pillar 1 in the Zero Hunger Strategic review for enhancing the capacity of smallholder farmers to produce food all year round and end hunger by 2030 (7).

Ministry of Natural Resources and Energy, National Water Policy 2018: Indicates that the National Water Agency will develop guidelines on the benefits of transitioning from irrigation systems that are water inefficient to systems that are more water efficient, and incentives (tariffs and levies) will be incorporated for efficient irrigation practices (40).

National Irrigation Policy, 2005: Aims to ensure that irrigated agriculture contributes to economic growth and poverty reduction, optimize the productivity of water and establish an institutional framework for irrigation that is strong and transparent while promoting new public and private investment opportunities (41).

Financial incentives: Government projects in the Post Covid-19 Economic Recovery Plan entail an investment of E 1.2 billion (USD 76.7 million) to the LUSIP II, and a planned investment of E 1.3 billion (USD 83.12 million) to the Mkhondvo/Ngwavuma Water and Irrigation Development project (3).

Fiscal incentives: Incentives for pastoral, agricultural, plantation or other farming operations of special deductions not to exceed 5% of taxpayer's taxable income include dams, water-furrows, irrigation schemes and wells (39).

Other incentives: Eswatini Electricity Company charges reduced tariffs for smallholder irrigation (44).

Eswatini Water Act, 2003: Allows for the use of water for irrigation purposes through the establishment of Irrigation Districts, a Water Authority, an interim Water Apportionment Board and River Basin Authorities together with Irrigation Districts and Water User Associations (37).

The Swazi Nation Land Commercialization Bill, 2015 (undergoing development): Provides for the designation, demarcation and allocation of Swazi Nation Land for agri-business, registration of land use-rights, establishment of Chiefdom land allocation Committee and the Appeals Tribunal (20).

Constitution of the Kingdom of Eswatini, 2005: Article 210 declares water as a national resource vesting responsibility for its protection in the State; article 215 rules out any private ownership of water resources: and other articles give the Parliament the right to enact laws related to water (40).

Legal Notice No. 324 the Public Procurement Act of 2011, 2020: Regulates the procurement of goods, works and services by procuring entities to ensure transparency, accountability and promote diverse private sector participation in public procurements, including for irrigation systems (34).

Tibiyo Taka Ngwane (Inyonyi Yami Eswatini Irrigation Scheme (IYSIS)), Sekunjalo Irrigation, Lusutfu Services Limited, Swaziland International Irrigation, Irricon, Dabulamanzi Civil Works and Irrigation, Aqua-Flo Engineering.

Ministry of Agriculture, Eswatini Water and Agricultural Development Enterprise (ESWADE), National Agricultural Marketing Board (NAMBoard).

African Development Bank (AfDB), International Fund for Agriculture (IFAD), European Union (EU), World Food Programme (WFP), Southern African Development Community (SADC), Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), European Investment Bank (EIB).

COSPE Eswatini, World Vision International, Eswatini National Agricultural Union (ENAU), Eswatini Sugar Association, Woman Farmer Foundation.